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Abstract: A brief summary of the purpose of the research, the methodology and the key findings.
Action research: A methodology used in applied research to find an effective way of bringing about a conscious change in a partly controlled environment.
Analogy: A means of designing a study in one subject by importing ideas and procedures from another area where there are similarities.
Analytical research: A study where the aim is to understand phenomena by discovering and measuring causal relations among them.
Anonymity: The provision of protection to participants by ensuring that their names are not identified with the information they give.
Applied research: Describes a study that is designed to apply its findings to solving a specific, existing problem.
Axiological assumption: A philosophical assumption about the role of values.
Bar chart: A graphical presentation of a frequency distribution of an ordinal or nominal variable in which the data are represented by a series of separate vertical or horizontal bars. The frequencies are indicated by the height (or length) of the bars.
Basic (or pure) research: Describes a study that is designed to make a contribution to general knowledge and theoretical understanding, rather than solve a specific problem.
Bibliography: A list of publications relating to a topic.
Bivariate analysis: Analysis of data from two variables.
Brainstorming: A technique that can be used to generate research topics by listing spontaneous ideas with one or more interested people.
Case study: A methodology that is used to explore a single phenomenon (the case) in a natural setting using a variety of methods to obtain indepth knowledge.
Categorical variable: A nominal variable measured using numerical codes to identify categories.
Chi squared (l2) test: A non-parametric test of association for two variables measured on a nominal scale.
Citation: An acknowledgement in the text of the original source from which information was obtained.
Closed question: A question where respondents select the answer from a number of predetermined alternatives.
Coding frame: A list of coding units against which the analysed material is classified.
Coding unit: A particular word, character, item, theme or concept identified in the data and allocated a specific code.
Cognitive mapping: A method based on personal construct theory that structures a participant’s perceptions in the form of a diagram.
Confidence interval: A parametric technique for estimating a range of values of a sample statistic that is likely to contain an unknown population parameter at a given level of probability; the wider the confidence interval, the higher the confidence level.
Confidentiality: The provision of protection to participants by ensuring that sensitive information is not disclosed and the research data cannot be traced to the individual or organization providing it.
Confounding variable: A variable that obscures the effects of another.
Content analysis: A method by which selected items of qualitative data are systematically converted to numerical data for analysis.
Continuous variable: A ratio or interval variable measured on a scale where the data can take any value within a given range, such as time or length.
Correlation: A measure of the direction and strength of association between two quantitative variables. Correlation may be linear or nonlinear, positive or negative.
Critical incident technique: A method for collecting data about a defined activity or event based on the participant’s recollections of key facts.
Cross-sectional study: A methodology designed to investigate variables or a group of subjects in different contexts over the same period of time.
Cross-tabulation: A bivariate analysis of frequency distributions (usually relating to ordinal or nominal variables) in the form of a table.
Data (singular is datum): Known facts or things used as a basis for inference or reckoning.
Data display: A summary of data in diagrammatic form that allows the user to draw valid conclusions.
Data integrity: Characteristics of the research that affect error and bias in the results.
Data reduction: ‘A form of data analysis that sorts, focuses, discards and reorganizes data’ (Miles and Huberman, 1994, p. 11).
Deductive research: A study in which a conceptual and theoretical structure is developed which is then tested by empirical observation; thus particular instances are deducted from general inferences.
Delimitation: Establishes the scope of the research.
Dependent variable (DV): A variable whose values are influenced by one or more independent variables.
Descriptive research: A study where the aim is to describe the characteristics of phenomena.
Descriptive statistics: A group of statistical methods used to summarize, describe or display quantitative data.
Diary: A method of collecting data where selected participants are asked to record relevant information in diary forms or booklets over a specified period of time.
Dichotomous variable: A variable that has two categories, such as gender.
Discrete variable: A ratio or interval variable measured on a scale that can take only one of a range of distinct values, such as number of employees.
Dissertation: ‘A detailed discourse, esp. as submitted for [an] academic degree’. A discourse is ‘a lengthy treatment of a theme’ (Oxford)
Dummy variable: A dichotomous quantitative variable coded 1 if the characteristic is present and 0 if the characteristic is absent.
Empirical evidence: Data based on observation or experience.
Epistemological assumption: A philosophical assumption about what constitutes valid knowledge in the context of the relationship of the researcher to that being researched.
Error: The difference between the mean and the data value (observation).
Ethnography: A methodology in which the researcher uses socially acquired and shared knowledge to understand the observed patterns of human activity.
Evaluation: The ability to make qualitative or quantitative judgements; to set out a reasoned argument through a series of steps, usually of gradually increasing difficulty; to criticize constructively.
Experimental study: A methodology used to investigate the relationship between two variables, where the independent variable is deliberately manipulated to observe the effect on the dependent variable.
Exploratory research: A study where the aim is to investigate phenomena where there is little or no information, with a view to finding patterns or developing propositions, rather than testing them. The focus is on gaining insights prior to a more rigorous investigation.
Extraneous variable: Any variable other than the independent variable which might have an effect on the dependent variable.
Feminist studies: A methodology used to investigate and seek understanding of phenomena from a feminist perspective.
Field experiment: An experimental study conducted in a natural location.
Focus group: A method for collecting data whereby selected participants discuss their reactions and feelings about a product, service, situation or concept, under the guidance of a group leader.
Frequency: The number of observations for a particular data value in a variable.
Frequency distribution: An array that summarizes the frequencies for all the data values in a particular variable.
Generalizability: The extent to which the research findings (often based on a sample) can be extended to other cases (often a population) or to other settings.
Grounded theory: A methodology in which a systematic set of procedures is used to develop an inductively derived theory about phenomena.
Harvard system of referencing: A system where citations are shown as author and date (and page number if quoting) in the text and the references are listed in alphabetical order by author at the end of the document.
Hermeneutics: A methodology that focuses on the interpretation and understanding of text in the context of the underlying historical and social forces.
Histogram: A refinement of a bar chart where adjoining bars touch, indicating continuous interval or ratio data. Frequency is represented by area, with the width of each bar indicating the class interval and the height indicating the frequency of the class.
Hypothesis (plural is hypotheses): A proposition that can be tested for association or causality against empirical evidence.
Hypothetical construct: A rating scale used to measure opinion and other abstract ideas.
Independent variable (IV): A variable that influences the values of a dependent variable.
Index number: A statistical measure that shows the percentage change in a variable from a fixed point in the past.
Inductive research: A study in which theory is developed from the observation of empirical reality; thus general inferences are induced from particular instances.
Inferential statistics: A group of statistical methods and models used to draw conclusions about a population from quantitative data relating to a random sample.
Information: The knowledge created by organizing data into a useful form.
Interpretivism: A paradigm that emerged in response to criticisms of positivism. It rests on the assumption that social reality is in our minds, and is subjective and multiple. Therefore, social reality is affected by the act of investigating it. The research involves an inductive process with a view to providing interpretive understanding of social phenomena within a particular context.
Interquartile range: A measure of dispersion that represents the difference between the upper quartile and the lower quartile (the middle 50%) of a frequency distribution arranged in size order.
Interval variable: A variable measured on a mathematical scale with equal intervals and an arbitrary zero point.
Interview: A method for collecting primary data in which a sample of interviewees are asked questions to find out what they think, do or feel.
Kurtosis: A measure of the extent to which a frequency distribution is flatter or more peaked than a normal distribution (a normal distribution has a kurtosis of 0).
Laboratory experiment: An experimental study conducted in an artificial setting.
Limitation: A weaknesses or deficiency in the research.
Line graph: A graphical presentation of a frequency distribution in which the data are represented by a series of points joined by a line; only suitable for continuous data.
Linear regression: A measure of the ability of an independent variable to predict an outcome in a dependent variable where there is a linear relationship between them.
Literature: All sources of published data on a particular topic.
Literature review: A critical evaluation of the existing body of knowledge on a topic, which guides the research and demonstrates that the relevant literature has been located and analysed.
Literature search: A systematic process with a view to identifying the existing body of knowledge on a particular topic.
Location: The setting in which the research is conducted.
Logistic regression: A form of multiple regression that is used where the dependent variable is a dummy variable and one or more of the independent variables are continuous quantitative variables. Any other independent variables can be ordinal or dummy variables.
Longitudinal study: A methodology used to investigate variables or a group of subjects over a long period of time.
Mann-Whitney test: A non-parametric test of difference for two independent or dependent samples for ratio, interval or ordinal variables.
Mean (x–): A measure of central tendency based on the arithmetic average of a set of data values.
Median (M): A measure of central tendency based on the mid-value of a set of data arranged in size order.
Method: A technique for collecting and/or analysing data.
Methodological assumption: A philosophical assumption about the process of research.
Methodological rigour: The appropriateness and intellectual soundness of the research design and the systematic application of the research methods.
Methodology: An approach to the process of the research encompassing a body of methods.
Mind map: An informal diagram of a person’s idea of the key elements of a subject that shows connections and relationships.
Mode (m): A measure of central tendency based on the most frequently occurring value in set of data (there may be multiple modes).
Morphological analysis: A technique for generating research topics whereby the subject is analysed into its key attributes and a ‘mix and match’ approach is adopted.
Multivariate analysis: Analysis of data more than two variables.
Natural setting: A research environment that would have existed had researchers never studied it.
Nominal variable: A variable measured using numerical codes to identify named categories.
Non-participant observation: A method of observation in which the observer is not involved in the activities taking place and the phenomena studied.
Normal distribution:A theoretical frequency distribution that is bell-shaped and symmetrical with tails extending indefinitely either side of the centre. The mean, median and mode coincide at the centre.
Observation: A method for collecting data used in the laboratory or in a natural setting to observe and record people’s actions and behaviour.
Ontological assumption: A philosophical assumption about the nature of reality.
Open question: A question where respondents can give a response in their own words.
Ordinal variable: A variable measured using numerical codes to identify order or rank.
Paradigm: A framework that guides how research should be conducted based on people’s philosophies and their assumptions about the world and the nature of knowledge.
Parameter: A number that describes a population.
Participant observation: A method of observation in which the observer is involved in the activities taking place and the phenomena studied.
Participative enquiry: A methodology that involves the participants as fully as possible in the study, which is conducted in their own group or organization.
Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r): A philosophical assumption about the nature of reality.
Percentage frequency: A descriptive statistic that summarizes a frequency as a proportion of 100.
Phenomenon (plural phenomena): An observed or apparent object, fact or occurrence, especially one where the cause is uncertain.
Pie chart: A circular diagram showing the percentage frequency distribution of a nominal variable in which the data are represented by a series of segments. Each segment represents an area that is proportional to the whole ‘pie’.
Plagiarism: The act of taking someone’s words, ideas or other information and passing them off as your own because you fail to acknowledge the original source.
Population: A precisely defined body of people or objects under consideration for statistical purposes.
Positivism: A paradigm that originated in the natural sciences. It rests on the assumption that social reality is singular and objective, and is not affected by the act of investigating it. The research involves a deductive process with a view to providing explanatory theories to understand social phenomena.
Predictive research: A study where the aim is to generalize from an analysis of phenomena by making predictions based on hypothesized general relationships.
Primary data: Data generated from an original source, such as your own experiments, surveys, interviews or focus groups.
Problem statement: A short statement (usually one sentence) describing the research problem.
Protocol analysis: A method for collecting data used to identify a practitioner’s mental processes in solving a problem in a particular situation, including the logic and methods used.
Purpose statement: A statement (usually two or three sentences long) that describes the overall purpose of the research study.
Qualitative data: Data in a nominal form.
Quantifying methods: Methods used to analyse qualitative data by converting it into quantitative data.
Quantitative data: Data in a numerical form.
Quantitative variable: A ratio, interval or dummy variable.
Quasi-judicial method: A method of analysis that involves the use of rational argument to interpret qualitative data.
Questionnaire: A method for collecting primary data in which a sample of respondents are asked a list of carefully structured questions chosen after considerable testing, with a view to eliciting reliable responses.
Random sample: A sample that is representative of the population because every member had an equal chance of being selected.
Range: A measure of dispersion that represents the difference between the maximum value and the minimum value in a frequency distribution arranged in size order.
Ranked data: Quantitative data arranged in size order so that statistical tests can be performed on the ranks.
Rating scale: A hypothetical construct for obtaining ordinal data, such as the Likert scale.
Ratio variable: A variable measured on a mathematical scale with equal intervals and a fixed zero point.
Recontextualizing data: A process of generalization so that the theory emerging from a study can be applied to other settings and populations.
References: A list containing bibliographic details of the sources cited in the text.
Relevance tree: A diagram that can be used as a device for generating research topics and develop clusters of related ideas from a fairly broad starting concept.
Reliability: The absence of differences in the results if the research were repeated.
Repertory grid technique: A method based on personal construct theory that generates a mathematical representation of a participant’s perceptions.
Replication: Repeating a research study to test the reliability of the results.
Research: A systematic and methodical process of enquiry and investigation with a view to increasing knowledge./p>
Research design: The detailed plan for conducting a research study.
Research instrument: A means of collecting data, such as a questionnaire, that has been used in a number of studies and can be adopted by any researcher.
Research problem: The specific problem or issue that is the focus of the research.
Research proposal: The document which sets out the research design for a study.
Research question: The specific question the research is designed to investigate and attempt to answer.
Research topic: The general area of research interest.
Results currency: The generalizability of the research results.
Rhetorical assumption: A philosophical assumption about the language of research.
Sample: A subset of a population. In a positivist study, a random sample is chosen to provide an unbiased subset of the population.
Sampling frame: A record of the population from which a sample can be drawn.
Scatter plot: A diagram for presenting data where one variable is plotted against another on a graph as a pattern of points, which indicates the direction and strength of any linear correlation. The more the points cluster around a straight line, the stronger the correlation.
Seasonal variation: Where a pattern in the movements of time series data repeats itself at regular intervals.
Secondary data: Data collected from an existing source, such as publications, databases and internal records.
Significance level: Level of confidence that the results of a statistical analysis are not due to chance. It is usually expressed as the probability that the results of the statistical analysis are due to chance (usually 5% or less).
Skewness: A measure of the extent to which a frequency distribution is asymmetric (a normal distribution has a skewness of 0).
Spearman’s correlation coefficient (rho): A non-parametric test that measures linear association between two variables measured on a ratio, interval or ordinal scale.
Standard deviation (sd): A measure of dispersion that is the square root of the variance. A large standard deviation relative to the mean suggests the mean does not represent the data well.
Standard error (se): The standard deviation between the means of different samples. A large standard error relative to the overall sample mean suggests the sample might not be representative of the population.
Statistic: A number that describes a sample.
Statistics: A body of methods and theory that is applied to quantitative data.
Stem-and-leaf plot: A diagram that uses the data values in a frequency distribution to create a display. The data values are arranged in size order and each is divided into the leading digit (the stem) and trailing digits (the leaves).
Stratified sample: A random sample chosen by selecting an appropriate proportion from each strata of the population.
Structuring data: Reorganizing data into suitable categories or sequences.
Supervisor: The person responsible for overseeing and guiding a student’s research.
Survey: A methodology designed to collect primary or secondary data from a sample, with a view to generalizing the results to a population.
Synthesis/creativity: The ability to build up information from other information.
Systematic sample: A random sample chosen by dividing the population by the required sample size (n) and selecting every nth subject.
Tally: A simple stroke used to count the frequency of occurrence of a value or category in a variable.
Theoretical framework: A collection of theories and models from the literature which underpins a positivist study. Theory can be generated from some interpretivist studies.
Theory: A set of interrelated variables, definitions and propositions that specifies relationships among the variables.
Thesis: ‘A dissertation, esp. by [a] candidate for a higher degree’ (Oxford Dictionary & Thesaurus, 1997, p. 801).
Time series: A sequence of measurements of a variable taken at regular intervals over time.
Time series analysis: A statistical technique for forecasting future events from time series data.
Trend: A consistently upward or downward movement in time series data.
Triangulation: The use of multiple sources of data, different research methods and/or more than one researcher to investigate the same phenomenon in a study.
t-test: A parametric test of difference for two independent or dependent samples for ratio or interval variables.
Type I error: An error that occurs when H0 is true, but the test leads to its rejection..
Type II error: An error that occurs when H1 is true, but the test leads to the acceptance of H0.
Unit of analysis: The phenomenon under study, about which data are collected and analysed.
Univariate analysis: Analysis of data from one variable.
Validity: The extent to which the research findings accurately reflect the phenomena under study.
Vancouver system: A system of referencing where citations are shown as an in-text number each time the source is cited and the references are listed in numerical order at the end of the document.
Variable: A characteristic of a phenomenon that can be observed or measured.
Variance: The mean of the squared errors.
Viva voce: A defence of a dissertation or thesis by oral examination.
Weighted index number: An index number constructed by calculating a weighted average of some set of values, where the weights show the relative importance of each item in the data set.
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