Chapter summaries

Chapter 1: Understanding research
Chapter 2: Making academic decisions
Chapter 3: Dealing with practical issues
Chapter 4: Identifying your research paradigm
Chapter 5: Choosing a methodology
Chapter 6: Searching and reviewing the literature
Chapter 7: Writing your research proposal
Chapter 8: Collecting qualitative data
Chapter 9: Analysing qualitative data
Chapter 10: Collecting data for statistical analysis
Chapter 11: Analysing data using descriptive statistics
Chapter 12: Analysing data using inferential statistics
Chapter 13: Writing up the research

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1: Understanding research
This chapter has examined the purpose and nature of research, and the ways in which it can be classified. We have given an overview of the different types of research and the factors that need to be considered at various levels. A research project offers an opportunity to identify and select a research problem to investigate independently under the guidance of a supervisor. It gives you the opportunity to apply theory or otherwise analyse a real business problem or issue. Your research needs to be systematic and methodical and your study will illuminate the problem or issue and contribute towards our greater understanding of it. To ensure you are satisfied with your research and achieve the outcomes you desire, you must develop a research strategy. The most important part of that strategy from the onset is to start writing. You should make sure that you keep careful records to ensure that other people’s contribution to knowledge is not confused with yours.

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2: Making academic decisions
This chapter has given an overview of the general requirements and standards you can expect in relation to your dissertation or thesis. Views on what constitutes research around the world vary and there are no global rules that govern what universities and other institutions of higher education offer research students. Once you have determined the country in which you wish to study, you then need to identify the institutions that are well recognized and offer the type of programme you want. If you have the necessary entry qualifications, visit the institution and evaluate the quality of what they have to offer. You need to be wary of degree programmes that are very short or appear to offer a qualification without substantial work.

If you are a potential MPhil or doctoral candidate, you should arrange to meet potential supervisors. This also gives them the opportunity to assess your qualities and skills at the same time as discussing your proposed research. Part of your decision about where to study will rest on whether you can find an experienced supervisor who is interested in your research topic and willing to guide your endeavours. Some students will need to find more than one supervisor.

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3: Dealing with practical issues
This chapter has been about preparing yourself to do research. We have given advice on critical issues, such as sources of finance, and also explained more academic issues such as generating a research topic and the skills and experiences you require at different stages of a project. It is important that you appreciate that research is more than an investigation; it is also an activity that calls for efficient project management if it is to be successful.

We have also emphasized the importance of setting a timetable. Once you commence your investigations you do not want to be slowed down because you have not been able to organize yourself properly. Efficient organization also means that you are more likely to stick to the schedule you have set. In research you are frequently working to deadlines. If you miss the critical deadlines you may not get a second chance.

Unfortunately, many students ignore questions of ethics, anonymity and confidentiality until they are confronted with them. These considerations are becoming increasingly important and you may find that your research proposal has to be approved by a university ethics committee before you can proceed. The success of the project will be determined by how well you establish the foundations that we have described in this chapter.

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4: Identifying your research paradigm
We have introduced a number of concepts in this chapter that may be new to you. It is essential for you to understand your research paradigm, as this provides a framework for designing your study. The two main paradigms are positivism and what can be loosely referred to as interpretivism. In this chapter, we have examined how the core ontological, epistemological, axiological, rhetorical and methodological assumptions of the two main paradigms differ. Positivism and interpretivism lie at opposite ends of a continuum of paradigms with a range of other paradigms between them. Two key features that characterize research findings are reliability and validity. Reliability refers to being able to obtain the same results if the study were replicated. Reliability is likely to be higher in a positivist study than in a study designed under an interpretive paradigm. Validity refers to the research findings accurately representing what is happening in the situation. Validity is likely to be higher in an interpretivist study than a positivist study.

If you are doing research at Master’s or doctoral level, you will need to explain your paradigm and justify your methodology and methods. Methodological triangulation is where the research design includes complementary methods from within the same paradigm. It is essential that triangulation is an integral part of the design and not an attempt to rectify a poorly designed study and you are not advised to mix methods from opposing paradigms.

Once you have identified your paradigm, you can determine which methodology and methods will be appropriate. This will mean you have reached the research design stage and you will be in a position to develop your research proposal. If you are doing research at the undergraduate level, it is likely that you will not have to concern yourself too much with paradigms and will concentrate instead on managing the research process, collecting the data and analysing them. This is covered in subsequent chapters.

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5: Choosing a methodology
This chapter and Chapter 4 should have given you a valuable framework for your study. You will need to make a choice about the paradigm you will adopt at an early stage in your research. Clarity about your paradigm is essential for the progress of your research as it determines your choice of research strategy (your methodology). This, in turn, will lead you to a range of associated methods for collecting and analysing your research data. It is not uncommon in business research to use triangulation, particularly in terms of data triangulation and methodological triangulation. This allows you to take a broader, complementary view of the research problem or issue. However, triangulation must be an integral part of your research strategy; it cannot be used to rectify a poorly designed study. We will be examining this in Chapter 7. Before you can progress to this important milestone, you need to choose a research topic and start reading the literature so that you review the existing body of knowledge and find out how previous research was conducted. We explain this stage in Chapter 6.

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6: Searching and reviewing the literature
Searching and reviewing the literature is a major part of your research and, although an intensive phase at the start of the project, will continue on a smaller scale until you submit your dissertation or thesis. Therefore, it is essential to start as soon as possible. This will be when you have chosen a general topic that is relevant to your course; it does not matter that you have not yet identified a particular research problem or issue to investigate, because you will identify this from studying the literature and identifying the need for your study. Most students will be required to incorporate a preliminary literature review in their research proposal, and this will be essential if you are applying for funding. All students will need to write a comprehensive critical literature review for their dissertation or thesis.

Searching the literature is time-consuming. It is rarely a problem locating literature but often a matter of not becoming overwhelmed by the number of items found. In this chapter we have given you guidance on how to define the scope of your research and narrow your search so that you focus as closely as possible on the relevant literature. You will then need to become familiar with the literature, which means setting aside plenty of time to read it, select what is relevant to your study and analyse it using a systematic method. You will write about the methods you used to search the literature (and what sources you searched) and how you analysed the material in your methodology chapter in your dissertation or thesis. In your proposal, you only need to indicate the main sources you will use, such as the journals and databases to which your institution subscribes. In your literature review, and throughout your research, you must cite your sources correctly and provide full bibliographic details in your list of references. We have explained the principal rules of the Harvard and Vancouver systems, but you must check which system you are expected to use. If your institution uses the APA system, you will find it is very similar to the Harvard system. More information on referencing will be available from your lecturers, supervisors and librarians. It is your responsibility to ensure that you have not committed plagiarism. Many institutions use detection software to check for this and your supervisor will also be alert to this form of cheating. We have warned you about the dangers of plagiarism because it is taken very seriously and the penalties are harsh. Remember that your literature review is not a shopping list and you must write a critical analysis that provides the context for your research, and concludes by identifying the need for your study and the main research question(s) it addresses. If you are a positivist, an important function of the literature review is to identify your theoretical framework and hypotheses. Box 6.12 shows a checklist for a literature review that draws together some of the key issues.

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7: Writing your research proposal
In this chapter we have built on your knowledge from studying the preceding chapters to explain how to design a research study and draw up a detailed plan for carrying out the study. We have explored ways in which you can identify a potential research problem by identifying gaps and deficiencies in the literature, and how the purpose of the research can be communicated succinctly through the use of a purpose statement. We have also discussed the role of the main research question(s), and the importance of determining your main research questions and a theoretical framework (the latter is not applicable if you are using a grounded theory methodology). We have looked at the role of hypotheses in a positivist study and the influence of your paradigm on your choice of methodology.

Positivist and interpretivist studies will have different research designs. A positivist research design will incorporate a stronger theoretical basis and it will be necessary to develop hypotheses. There will be an emphasis on the proposed measurement and analysis of the research data. An interpretivist research design may incorporate a theoretical framework and set out various propositions, but the emphasis is more likely to be on the robustness of the methods that will be used to analyse the research data.

We have described how to write a research proposal, looked at a typical structure and suggested additional items that may need to be included, such as a statement of required resources, a budget or a statement of research activities and interests. Once your research proposal has been accepted, you can start collecting your research data. However, the acceptance of your proposal does not necessarily mean that your research project will be successful. A research proposal is merely a plan and the next step is to execute that plan. The following chapters explain how you can do this successfully. Although every research proposal is unique, it is useful to look at other proposals. If you can obtain examples of successful proposals from your supervisor, these provide the best guide to what is acceptable at your own institution. The following examples are summaries of proposals submitted by MPhil and PhD candidates. For the purpose of this book they have been abbreviated and therefore do not capture the richness of a full proposal. However, they provide illustrations of the style and content of postgraduate and doctoral research proposals.

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8: Collecting qualitative data
The collection of qualitative data under an interpretative paradigm cannot be separated from the analysis. Although for the purposes of explanation we are discussing collection and analysis in separate chapters, in practice the analytical process starts as soon as you begin collecting qualitative data. If you are collecting qualitative data as part of a positivist study, you will choose quantifying methods in the next stage, followed by statistical analysis. We cover this in the next few chapters. Whichever paradigm you have adopted, it is essential that you do not collect data until you have decided on the method of analysis.

All researchers must consider the ethical issues involved. As a general rule you should inform the participants of the purpose of the research and, where practicable, obtain their written consent to take part. Most of the methods in this chapter are based on the researcher recording the data (interviews, critical incident technique, protocol analysis, repertory grid technique, focus groups and observation) or the participant recording the data (diary methods). We have also mentioned grounded theory methodology again, where any interpretive method(s) can be used. Some of the methods in this chapter are associated with specific analytical methods, which we discuss in the next chapter.

It is also essential that you use rigorous methods for recording research data that also provide evidence of the source. Note-taking allows you to jot down the main points, which is starting off the analysis process. However, it would be difficult to write comprehensive notes and you may miss important information because you are busy writing. Most notetaking involves a degree of instant analysis, which can lead to omissions, distortions, errors and bias as you subjectively filter what data you record. Moreover, even shorthand writers may sometimes find it difficult to decipher their notes afterwards.

Audio or video recording overcomes these problems and leaves you free to concentrate on taking notes of other aspects, such as attitude, behaviour and body language. A specific recording device can be used, or the facilities on your telephone or laptop. The important thing to remember is that you need to obtain the participant’s agreement to being recorded. Although the technology has made video easier to use, the cost of the equipment may be a problem. The advantage of video is the relative completeness and complexity of the data thus captured and the permanence of the record it provides. The subsequent analysis can be conducted in any order and at different speeds.

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9: Analysing qualitative data
In this chapter we have examined a number of different methods of analysing qualitative data. If you are conducting your research under an interpretive paradigm, the majority of the data you will have collected are likely to be in a qualitative form. Even if you have taken a positivist approach, some of the data you have collected may be qualitative. The main challenges when attempting to analyse qualitative data are how to reduce and restructure the data in a form other than extended text, both in the analysis and when presenting the findings. Unfortunately, few researchers describe their methods in enough detail to provide a comprehensive guide.

There are a number of methods and techniques which can be used to quantify the data. If that is not possible, or is philosophically unacceptable, you must devise some form of coding to represent the data to aid storage, retrievability and reconstruction. The synthesis and reorganization of data should lead to the development of themes and patterns which can be confronted by existing theories or used to construct new theories. Many researchers find that the use of displays is extremely valuable for part, if not all, of their data analysis. Others decide a particular technique is more appropriate. Whichever approach you adopt, it is essential that you establish systems and procedures to allow you to manage and organize the raw data you have collected.

You need to remember that your purpose, when analysing the data, is to find answers to your research questions. Therefore, you need to keep your research questions at the front of your mind while you are conducting the analysis. No matter how good the techniques and procedures you adopt are, the quality of your analysis will depend on the quality of the data you have collected and your interpretation.

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10: Collecting data for statistical analysis
In this chapter, we have investigated the ways in which you can collect original data to supplement the secondary data you have collected, and will continue to collect, from searching the literature. We have examined how you can classify your variables according to their level of measurement and how to identify them according to their role in your analysis. We have examined the main methods of collecting data for statistical analysis and you should now be in a position to make an informed choice. It is important to remember that you can use more than one method, and some methods associated with a particular paradigm can be adapted for use under either paradigm.

In Chapter 8, we drew attention to the importance of using rigorous methods for recording research data that also provide evidence of the source. If the participant is not providing written responses, you will need to jot down the main points in a notebook. This necessarily means leaving out items and all the details, which can lead to distortions, errors and bias. Even shorthand writers sometimes have a problem in deciphering their notes afterwards and you need to be aware that relying on your notes will be inadequate. Audio and/or video recording overcomes these problems and leaves you free to concentrate on taking notes of other aspects, such as attitude, behaviour and body language, if these are relevant to your understanding of the phenomena under study. A specific recording device can be used or the facilities on your telephone or laptop. The important thing to remember is that you need to obtain the participant’s agreement to being recorded.

The overall design of questionnaires and how they can be distributed offers a number of choices. This is also true of the way in which questions can be designed under a positivist paradigm, including the use of hypothetical constructs to measure abstract ideas. We have discussed these matters and explained how questions in questionnaires and other data record sheets can be pre-coded for subsequent statistical analysis. The final topic covered in this chapter is the important matter of selecting a sample. Under a positivist paradigm, this can be the whole population or a random sample of sufficient size to represent the population and allow you to address your research questions.

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11: Analysing data using descriptive statistics
In this chapter, we have demonstrated how to conduct a typical exploratory analysis of research data and how to generate tables, charts and other graphical forms, and how to summarize data using descriptive statistics. All students designing a study that includes the analysis of quantitative data need this knowledge. However, it does not matter whether you use SPSS or another software program to which you have access. If you have a relatively small data set, you could enter it into an Excel spreadsheet, which also has facilities for generating statistics and charts. Although it is possible to calculate percentage frequencies, measures of central tendency and dispersion using a calculator, when time and accuracy are at a premium you will find it invaluable to learn how to use the statistical package at your disposal. These are transferable skills that will enhance your employability. Table 11.8 summarizes the descriptive statistics we have examined in this chapter and helps you select those that are appropriate for the measurement scale of your variables.

TABLE 11.8: Choosing appropriate descriptive statistics

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In addition to time constraints and your skills, your choice of statistics will depend on research questions, which may require the use of inferential statistics in addition to the descriptive statistics we have explained in this chapter. We discuss inferential statistics in the next chapter, but if these are not required for your study, you may find the checklist in Box 11.5 helps ensure the successful completion of your analysis.

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12: Analysing data using inferential statistics
Apart from the important matter of whether your data meet the four basic assumptions that determine whether you can use parametric tests, you need to consider time constraints and your skills. The data used to illustrate the inferential statistics in this chapter relate to a study that was designed to address a set of hypotheses underpinned by theory. Although the research data was non-parametric, we have also explained the equivalent parametric models.

In the previous sections we have showed how comparison of longitudinal data can be aided through indexation and time series analysis can be used to examine the trend and any seasonal variation. If the latter is present, the de-seasonalized trend can be calculated and any cyclical and irregular variation evaluated. The trend and the seasonal variation can be analysed using linear regression.

Your choice of analysis will depend on whether your research data is parametric or non-parametric and whether you want to:

• summarize and/or display the data (descriptive statistics)
• test for significant differences between independent or related samples (inferential statistics)
• test for significant association between variables (inferential statistics)
• predict an outcome from one or more independent variables (inferential statistics)
• forecast trends from longitudinal data (time series analysis).

It is important to remember that you need to know how you are going to analyse your data before you collect it. We provided a checklist at the end of the previous chapter and Box 12.2 extends this by summarizing the main steps in analysing quantitative data.

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13: Writing up the research
In this chapter we have looked at the planning and the practical side of writing, from designing the report to developing a suitable writing style and presenting the data. Writing up your research can be a highly rewarding process once you get started. The secret to completing on time is to write notes and draft sections of your dissertation or thesis from the outset, rather than leave it until the last minute. If, for one reason or another, you have not managed to start writing early enough, you will face major problems and we give advice in the next chapter on how these might be resolved.

If you are a serious researcher or wish to have an academic career, conferences and academic journals are highly important. We have offered advice on achieving publication in academic journals, but we will not pretend that it is easy. The best personal quality you can have is persistence – somewhere there is a journal that will publish your article even if it takes several revisions.

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