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Many historians say that research is the ‘fun’ bit and that writing is a struggle. It stands to reason, therefore, that we all – professional historians and students alike – must take care with what we write and how we write it. Writing takes time. History essays are an art form, but they also benefit from an underpinning of scientific method: that is, they benefit from your development of logical and reasoned approach to writing, construction and organisation. In this section, we will consider
How you write is as important as what you write. Badly constructed sentences, errant punctuation and poor spelling will prevent the award of high marks. In these days of word-processors and spell-checkers, there is no excuse for poor spelling. A package like Microsoft Word also has grammar-checkers that will point out, for example, where you are writing in passive language. The active voice is almost always best because, as it uses fewer words, it is clearer and leaves less room for double meaning. Here are two examples, the first passive, and the second active:
- Caesar was stabbed by Brutus
- Brutus stabbed Caesar
A simple example, but the extra words of the passive voice can become crucial as sentences become longer. At the same time, however, the passive is necessary if the explanation is unclear. Thus, historians will often write, ‘It can be argued that . . .’
No matter how well you perform in seminars, or with the spoken word, you must present written arguments in clear, uncluttered and intelligible style. Why spend hours and hours writing an essay only to see it awarded a low mark because it was not spell-checked and proofread? Always read through your history assignments, checking for problems of form, style and content.
For more advice, see essay writing and the handy tips on essay writing.
The language you use in history essays is very important. Try to use the correct language, but not the slang, of everyday speech. Do not try to be clever with your writing style just for the sake of it. At the same time, do build up your vocabulary. When you come across a new word in your reading, make a note of it and look it up in the dictionary. Only use that word when you are sure of its meaning and context. Never deliberately use long words as substitutes for short ones.
Never use words that are surplus to requirements. That means checking sentences and asking ‘are all those words necessary?’ Do not use foreign phrases or scientific words where simple English versions are available. Try to avoid jargon. Napoleon was an excellent general, but historians would not describe him as ‘cool’. Avoid using too many metaphors; try not to run metaphor after metaphor. When you use them, watch out for mixed metaphors. Do not use hackneyed metaphors that you have seen in print many times before.
Language can enhance or diminish. Do not say things that are offensive or obnoxious, unless there is some important reason for doing so (e.g. if you are quoting Hitler for an essay on Nazi Germany). It is worth bearing in mind the nostrums of political correctness when you are writing. Ask yourself: is there any gender, ethnic or class group that would be offended by my essay? But such terms as mankind, man and woman can be used in context. It is, however, perfectly proper to use the language of the historical actors themselves. More generally, the cult of political correctness can be so limiting and tedious that a more robust style of terminology may be preferred.
Do not be pompous or pretentious in your stylistic construction. For example:
- Don’t use "persons" for "people.”
- Watch out for archaic words like "heretofore.”
Beware of words that do not mean what you think they mean:
- Extant does not mean existing (or at least not until the third or fourth definition in the Oxford English Dictionary).
- Disinterested does not mean uninterested.
- Decimate means ‘to reduce by one-tenth.
- Criminals are hanged, pictures are hung.
- Imply and infer are not the same.
The written word is meant to convey meaning to the reader. Tendentiousness, hectoring and arrogance will raise the readers’ ire; poor-quality writing will simply send them mad.
Keep sentences short and compact. If you have not made your point in, say, fifteen or twenty words, you probably have not said it as crisply as you might, although qualifying clauses are often a sign of maturity. If you don’t know what a semi-colon is, for example, find out. Remember, it should be possible to remove a clause (words that occur in parenthesis: between commas, dashes or brackets) from a sentence without losing its integrity and meaning.
Thus:
- Hitler, that cruel and merciless tyrant, came to power, in Germany, in January 1933.
If we remove the clauses (between the commas) we still have:
- Hitler came to power in January 1933.
Both sentences make sense.
For more advice, see essay writing and the handy tips on essay writing.
Paragraphs are important. They are not simply breaks you make periodically. A paragraph does not begin with a full cup of coffee and end when the doorbell rings. Paragraphs are meant to be unified wholes: they encompass, in logical progression, a particular point, argument or event. As Fowler says,
‘The paragraph is essentially a unit of thought, not of length; it must be homogenous in subject matters and sequential in treatment.’
Therefore, avoid jumping around from point to point as the paragraph progresses; treat it as a little essay unto itself. Begin with an opening statement, proceed with the body of evidence and argument and conclude with something that ties the thread together and which might hint at the next paragraph’s content. Avoid using too many single-sentence paragraphs.
Above all, when you are writing bear in mind the questions posed by George Orwell in ‘Politics and the English Language’ (1946):
- What am I trying to say?
- What words will express it?
- Is the image fresh enough to have an effect?
- Could I put it more shortly?
- Have I said anything that is avoidably ugly?
It is part of the professional practice of historians (and of other social scientists) that essays, articles, books, etc., should carry footnotes or endnotes. These are denoted by a superscript (raised) numeral at the end of a sentence or with a bracketed reference, e.g. ‘(Davis, 1991: 95)’. Historians prefer the former convention, although some might accept the second (known as the Harvard system), which must correspond to the list of authors and titles in your bibliography. Check with your teachers and lecturers which system is preferred.
Footnotes are a matter of courtesy to those whose facts, figures or ideas you have used to write a particular sentence or paragraph. Footnotes also prevent the text from being cluttered with book titles and page numbers, etc. They also protect students against charges of plagiarism – if you do not cite your sources, you are effectively passing off someone else’s work as your own. This is forbidden in academic circles and can be punished with a mark of zero. Persistent offenders may find themselves thrown off a course, so it is vital – for reasons of fairness, academic professionalism and personal development – that you learn the art of footnoting.
In general, you might follow a system like this for referencing (again, your department will have preferred styles):
For books:
C. Lloyd, Explanations in Social History (1988), p. 4.
P. Burke, The French Historical Tradition: the Annales School, 1929–89 (1990), pp. 20–35, 110–12.
Repeat references should be denoted by short titles.
For example: Lloyd, Social History, p. 7; Burke, Annales, pp. 78–82.
Use ‘Ibid.’ if the reference is the same as the previous footnote.
For journal articles and essays, titles appear in inverted commas, while the journal or main should appear underlined, thus:
E. J. Hobsbawm, ‘From social history to the history of society’,
Daedalus, 100, Winter 1971, pp. 20–45.
E. J. Hobsbawm, ‘From social history to the history of society’, in M. W. Flinn and T. C. Smout (eds), Essays in So cial History (1974), pp. 1–22.
For repeats:
Hobsbawm, ‘Social history’, p. 24.
These styles are to be used in both footnotes and endnotes and in bibliographies.
You must be consistent and use the same style throughout.
(It doesn’t really matter whether you underline or italicise your titles, just as long as they are properly distinguished from page numbers, names and dates.)
For more advice, see referencing and plagiarism.
This content has been taken from Studying History by Jeremy Black and Donald M. MacRaild
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, RG21 6XS, England
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